CAF: A Collaborative Approach to Providing Feedback
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v13i2.1452Keywords:
error correction, peer feedback, collaborative feedback, self-correction, teacher feedback, corrective feedback, CFAAbstract
This paper reports findings from a small-scale study on a collaborative technique for providing feedback to student writing, English languages teachers spend a significant amount of their time and effort on providing feedback to students on their writing performances. However, their corrective feedback does not produce desired outcomes. The students either do not pay attention to the comments or they do not learn as much as expected. Research suggests that they generally regard feedback as punitive. and demoralising. One reason for this is that students are not made a part of the feedback process, rather, only its recipients. Based on these premises, a small-scale action research project was conducted in a reputed Australian university. The study employed a collaborative approach, termed here as Collaborative Approach to Feedback (CAF), in which students, rather than their teachers, in small communities, worked together on their writings to provide feedback to each other. CAF, as an educational practice framework, was adopted in this project to involve students actively and collaboratively to provide feedback to other members of their community. Preliminary findings indicate that students felt engaged in and empowered by the process, and that, CAF as a feedback technique exerted positively on the correction of errors in writing. In the pretext of feedback and error correction theory, this paper offers a collaborative feedback framework and a rationale for CAF to be further explored, developed, and adapted.
References
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Baker, A. & Bricker, C. (2010). The effect of direct and indirect speech acts on native English and ESL speakers' perception of teacher written feedback. System 38, 75-84.
Bennett, S. (1974). A history of control engineering (1800-1930). New York: Stevenage
Bitchener, J. (2008). Evidence in support of written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17 (2), 69–124. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.11.004
Bitchener, J. (2012). Written corrective feedback for L2 development. Current knowledge and future research. TESOL Quarterly, 46(4), 855-860.
Bitchener, J. (2017). Direct versus indirect feedback. TESOL Encyclopaedia. New York: Willey Publishers
Bitchener, J., & Ferris, D.R. (2012). Written corrective feedback in second language acquisition and writing. New York and London: Routledge.
Bitchener, J., Young, S., & Cameron, D. (2005). The effect of different types of corrective feedback on ESL student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 14, 191–205. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2005.08.001
Boud, D. (1988). Moving towards autonomy. In D. Boud. Developing student autonomy in learning (2nd Ed.). London: Kogan Page.
Boud, D., Cohen, R., & Sampson, J. (2006) Peer Learning and Assessment. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education. 4(4), 413-426.
Brookes, N. (1960). Language and language learning: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.
Brown, D. (2012). The written corrective feedback debate: Next step for classroom teachers and practitioners. TESOL Quarterly, 46(4), 861-867.
Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12, 267-296. doi:10.1016/S1060-3743(03)00038-9.
Chen, A. (2013). EFL college writers’ perspectives on peer revisions of de-emphasising grammar correction in Taiwan. InternationalJournal of English Language Education, 1(3), 305-320
Denzin, N.K. (1989). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Columbia University Press
Dodge, R. (2016). Responding to errors in ESL writing. Writing Across the Curriculum. Sacramento State. Retrieved from www.csus.edu/wac/wac/teachers/esl_error.html
Ekşi, G.Y. (2012). Peer review versus teacher feedback in process writing: How effective? International Journal of Applied Educational Studies, 13(1), 33-48.
Ellis, R. (1993). The structural syllabus and second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 91-113
Ellis, R. (2009a). A typology of written corrective feedback types. English Language Teaching Journal, 63, 97-107. doi:10.1093/elt/ccn023
Ellis, R. (2009b). Corrective feedback and teacher development. L2 Journal, 1(1), 3-18.
Fathman, A.K. &Whalley, E. (1990). Teacher response to student writing:focus on form versus content. In B. Croll (Ed.). Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the classroom, (pp. 178-190). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fazio, L. (2001). The effect of corrections and commentaries on journal writing of minority- and majority-language minorities. Journal of second language writing, 10, 235-249
Ferris, D. (1997). The influence of teacher commentary on student revision. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 315-339.
Ferris, D. (1999). The case for grammar correction in L2 writing classes: A response to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 1–10.
Ferris, D. (2002). Treatment of error in second language writing classes. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Ferris, D. (2003). Responding to writing. In B. Kroll (Ed.). Exploring the dynamics of second language writing (pp. 119-140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ferris, D. (2006). Does error feedback help student writers? New evidence on the short- and long-term effects of written error correction. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.) Feedback in L2 writing: Contexts and issues, (pp. 81-104). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ferris, D. (2008). Feedback: Issues and Options. In P. Friedrich (Ed.). Teaching Academic Writing, (pp. 93-124). London: Continuum.
Ferris, D. (2010). Writing research and written corrective feedback. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 31(2), 180-201
Ferris, D. (2011). Treatment of errors in second language student writing. Ann Arbour, MI: The University of Michigan Press
Ferris, D.R (2004). The "Grammar Correction" Debate in L2 Writing: Where are we, and where do we go from here? (And what do we do in the meantime . . .?). Journal of second language writing, 13, 49-62.
Ferris, D.R. (2014). Responding to student writing: Teachers’ philosophies and practices. Assessing Writing, 19, 6-23. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2013.09.004.
Ferris, D., & Roberts, B. (2001). Error feedback in L2 writing classes: How explicit does it need to be? Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 161–184.
Fotos, S.S (1994). Integrating grammar instruction and communicative language use through grammar consciousness-raising tasks. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 323-351.
Gascoigne, C. (2004). Examining the effect of feedback in beginning L” composition. Foreign Language Annals, 37(1), 71-76.
Gibbs, J., & Ushijima, T. (2008). Engaging all by creating high school communities. Windson, California: Center Source System
Giri, R.A. & Awasthi, J.R. (1998). A diagnostic technique of error correction. Journal of NELTA. 4(1), 23-32
Guenette, D. (2007). Is feedback pedagogically correct? Research design issues in studies of feedback on writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 161-184
Hartshon, K.J,, Evan, N.W., Merrill, P.E., Sudweeks, P.R. Strong Crouse, D. & Anderson, N.J. (2010). Effects of dynamic corrective feedback on ESL writing accuracy. TESOL Quarterly, 44, 84-109
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2011). The Power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81-112. doi: 10.3102/003465430298487
Hyland, K. & Hyland F. (2006). Feedback on second language students’ writing. Language Teaching, 39, 83-101
Johnson, D. M. (1992). Approaches to research in second language learning. London: Longman
Kavaliauskiene, G. & Ausiene, L. (2012). A Case study: Learner attitude towards the correction of mistakes. Social Technologies. 2(1), 88-101
Kep, R. & Hill, A. (2008). Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the past. The International Review of research in Open and Distributed Learning, 9(3), 3-12
Kepner, C.G. (1991). An experiment on the relationship of types of written feedback to the development of second language writing. Modern Language Journal, 7, 305-313
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S.D. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lalande, J.F. (1982). Reducing composition errors: an experiment. Modern Language Journal 66, 140–149.
Lee, I. (2008). Understanding teachers’ written feedback practices in Hong Kong secondary classrooms. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 69-85. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.10.001.
Lee. I (1997). ESL learners’ performance in error correction in writing. System, 25, 465-477
Leki, I (1990). Potential problems with peer responding in ESL writing classes. CATESOL Journal, 3, 5-17
Leki, I. (1991). The preference of ESL students for error correction in college level writing classes. Foreign Language Annals. 24, 203-218
Liu, Y. (2008). The effects of error feedback in second language writing. Arizona Working Papers in SLA and Teaching, 15, 65-79
Lizotte, R. (2001). Quantifying progress in an ESL writing class. MATESOL Currents, 27(1), 7-17.
Long, M. (1996), The role of linguistic environment in SLA. In W. Ritchie and Bhatia (Eds.). Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, (pp. 413-468). San Diago, CA: Academic Press.
Lu, R. & Bol, L. (2007). A comparison of anonymous versus identifiable e-peer review on college student writing performance and the extent of critical feedback. Journal of Interactive Online Learning. 6(2), 100-115.
Polio, C. (2012). The acquisition of second language writing. In S.M. Gass and A. Mackey (Eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 319-334). New York: Routledge.
Polio, C., Fleck, C., & Leder, N. (1998). If only I had more time: ESL learners’ changes in linguistic accuracy on easy revisions. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7, 43,68
Radecki, P., & Swales, J. (1988). ESL student reaction to written comments on their written work. System, 16(3), 355-365.
Raimes, A. (1983). Techniques of teaching writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Richards, J. & Rodgers, J. (1999). Approaches and Methods of language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sato, M. (2013). Beliefs about peer interaction and peer corrective feedback: Efficacy of classroom intervention. Modern Language Journal, 97(3), 611-633. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12035
Schimdt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language teaching. A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In R.W. Schmidt (Ed.). Attention and awareness in foreign language learning. (pp. 1-63). Honolulu: University of Hawai.
Semke, H. (1984). The effects of the red pen. Foreign Language Annals, 17, 195-202
Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners’ acquisition of articles. TESOL Quarterly, 41, 255–283.
Sheppard, K. (1992). Two feedback types: do they make a difference? RELC Journal 23, 103-110.
Simpson, J.M. (2006). Feedback on writing: Changing EFL students’ attitudes. TESL Canada Journal, 24(1), 96-112. 17
Slavin, R.A. (2011). Cooperative learning. In V.G. Aukrust (Ed.). Learning and cognition in education (pp. 160-166) Oxford: Elsevier Limited
Stanley, J. (1992). Coaching student writers to be effective peer evaluators. Journal of Second Language Learning, 1(3), 217-233
Suri, L.Z. & McCoy, K. F. (2008). Correcting Discourse level errors in a CALL System for Second Language Learning. CALL, 6(3) 215-231.
Terrell, T. (1977). A natural approach to second language acquisition and learning. The Modern Language Journal, 61, 325-337
Tran, T.H. (2013). Approaches to treating student written errors. A paper presented at MIDTESOL Conference, Lawrence, Kansas.
Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes. Language Learning, 46, 327–369.
Truscott, J., & Hsu, A. Y-P. (2008). Error correction, revision, and learning. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 292–305. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2008.05.003
Van Beuningen, C.G., De Jong, N.H., & Kuiken, F. (2008). The effect of direct and indirect corrective feedback on L2 learners’ written accuracy. ITL International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 156, 279–296.
Yu, G.K. (1993). Cooperative learning for heterogeneous EFL classrooms in secondary school in Taiwan. NationalKaohseung Normal University Journal, $, 209-229.
Yu, S., & Lee, I. (2014). An analysis of Chinese EFL students' use of first and second language in peer feedback of L2 writing. System, 47, 28-38. doi:10.1016/j.system.2014.08.007.
Zaman, M., & Azad, A.K. (2012). Feedback in EFL Writing at Tertiary Level: Teachers' and Learners' Perceptions. ASA University Review, 6(1), 139-156.
Zamel, V. (1985). Responding to student writing. TESOL Quarterly,19, 79-101.
Zhao, H. (2014). Investigating teacher-supported peer assessment for EFL writing. ELT Journal, 68(2), 155-168. doi:10.1093/elt/cct068.
Ashwell, T. (2000). Patterns of teacher response to student writing in multi-draft composition classroom. Is content feedback followed form feedback the best method? Journal of Second Language Writing, 9, 227-257.
Baker, A. & Bricker, C. (2010). The effect of direct and indirect speech acts on native English and ESL speakers' perception of teacher written feedback. System 38, 75-84.
Bennett, S. (1974). A history of control engineering (1800-1930). New York: Stevenage
Bitchener, J. (2008). Evidence in support of written corrective feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17 (2), 69–124. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.11.004
Bitchener, J. (2012). Written corrective feedback for L2 development. Current knowledge and future research. TESOL Quarterly, 46(4), 855-860.
Bitchener, J. (2017). Direct versus indirect feedback. TESOL Encyclopaedia. New York: Willey Publishers
Bitchener, J., & Ferris, D.R. (2012). Written corrective feedback in second language acquisition and writing. New York and London: Routledge.
Bitchener, J., Young, S., & Cameron, D. (2005). The effect of different types of corrective feedback on ESL student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 14, 191–205. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2005.08.001
Boud, D. (1988). Moving towards autonomy. In D. Boud. Developing student autonomy in learning (2nd Ed.). London: Kogan Page.
Boud, D., Cohen, R., & Sampson, J. (2006) Peer Learning and Assessment. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education. 4(4), 413-426.
Brookes, N. (1960). Language and language learning: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.
Brown, D. (2012). The written corrective feedback debate: Next step for classroom teachers and practitioners. TESOL Quarterly, 46(4), 861-867.
Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12, 267-296. doi:10.1016/S1060-3743(03)00038-9.
Chen, A. (2013). EFL college writers’ perspectives on peer revisions of de-emphasising grammar correction in Taiwan. InternationalJournal of English Language Education, 1(3), 305-320
Denzin, N.K. (1989). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Columbia University Press
Dodge, R. (2016). Responding to errors in ESL writing. Writing Across the Curriculum. Sacramento State. Retrieved from www.csus.edu/wac/wac/teachers/esl_error.html
Ekşi, G.Y. (2012). Peer review versus teacher feedback in process writing: How effective? International Journal of Applied Educational Studies, 13(1), 33-48.
Ellis, R. (1993). The structural syllabus and second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 91-113
Ellis, R. (2009a). A typology of written corrective feedback types. English Language Teaching Journal, 63, 97-107. doi:10.1093/elt/ccn023
Ellis, R. (2009b). Corrective feedback and teacher development. L2 Journal, 1(1), 3-18.
Fathman, A.K. &Whalley, E. (1990). Teacher response to student writing:focus on form versus content. In B. Croll (Ed.). Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the classroom, (pp. 178-190). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fazio, L. (2001). The effect of corrections and commentaries on journal writing of minority- and majority-language minorities. Journal of second language writing, 10, 235-249
Ferris, D. (1997). The influence of teacher commentary on student revision. TESOL Quarterly, 31, 315-339.
Ferris, D. (1999). The case for grammar correction in L2 writing classes: A response to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 1–10.
Ferris, D. (2002). Treatment of error in second language writing classes. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Ferris, D. (2003). Responding to writing. In B. Kroll (Ed.). Exploring the dynamics of second language writing (pp. 119-140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ferris, D. (2006). Does error feedback help student writers? New evidence on the short- and long-term effects of written error correction. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.) Feedback in L2 writing: Contexts and issues, (pp. 81-104). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ferris, D. (2008). Feedback: Issues and Options. In P. Friedrich (Ed.). Teaching Academic Writing, (pp. 93-124). London: Continuum.
Ferris, D. (2010). Writing research and written corrective feedback. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 31(2), 180-201
Ferris, D. (2011). Treatment of errors in second language student writing. Ann Arbour, MI: The University of Michigan Press
Ferris, D.R (2004). The "Grammar Correction" Debate in L2 Writing: Where are we, and where do we go from here? (And what do we do in the meantime . . .?). Journal of second language writing, 13, 49-62.
Ferris, D.R. (2014). Responding to student writing: Teachers’ philosophies and practices. Assessing Writing, 19, 6-23. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2013.09.004.
Ferris, D., & Roberts, B. (2001). Error feedback in L2 writing classes: How explicit does it need to be? Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 161–184.
Fotos, S.S (1994). Integrating grammar instruction and communicative language use through grammar consciousness-raising tasks. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 323-351.
Gascoigne, C. (2004). Examining the effect of feedback in beginning L” composition. Foreign Language Annals, 37(1), 71-76.
Gibbs, J., & Ushijima, T. (2008). Engaging all by creating high school communities. Windson, California: Center Source System
Giri, R.A. & Awasthi, J.R. (1998). A diagnostic technique of error correction. Journal of NELTA. 4(1), 23-32
Guenette, D. (2007). Is feedback pedagogically correct? Research design issues in studies of feedback on writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 161-184
Hartshon, K.J,, Evan, N.W., Merrill, P.E., Sudweeks, P.R. Strong Crouse, D. & Anderson, N.J. (2010). Effects of dynamic corrective feedback on ESL writing accuracy. TESOL Quarterly, 44, 84-109
Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2011). The Power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77, 81-112. doi: 10.3102/003465430298487
Hyland, K. & Hyland F. (2006). Feedback on second language students’ writing. Language Teaching, 39, 83-101
Johnson, D. M. (1992). Approaches to research in second language learning. London: Longman
Kavaliauskiene, G. & Ausiene, L. (2012). A Case study: Learner attitude towards the correction of mistakes. Social Technologies. 2(1), 88-101
Kep, R. & Hill, A. (2008). Connectivism: Learning theory of the future or vestige of the past. The International Review of research in Open and Distributed Learning, 9(3), 3-12
Kepner, C.G. (1991). An experiment on the relationship of types of written feedback to the development of second language writing. Modern Language Journal, 7, 305-313
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practices in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S.D. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lalande, J.F. (1982). Reducing composition errors: an experiment. Modern Language Journal 66, 140–149.
Lee, I. (2008). Understanding teachers’ written feedback practices in Hong Kong secondary classrooms. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 69-85. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2007.10.001.
Lee. I (1997). ESL learners’ performance in error correction in writing. System, 25, 465-477
Leki, I (1990). Potential problems with peer responding in ESL writing classes. CATESOL Journal, 3, 5-17
Leki, I. (1991). The preference of ESL students for error correction in college level writing classes. Foreign Language Annals. 24, 203-218
Liu, Y. (2008). The effects of error feedback in second language writing. Arizona Working Papers in SLA and Teaching, 15, 65-79
Lizotte, R. (2001). Quantifying progress in an ESL writing class. MATESOL Currents, 27(1), 7-17.
Long, M. (1996), The role of linguistic environment in SLA. In W. Ritchie and Bhatia (Eds.). Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, (pp. 413-468). San Diago, CA: Academic Press.
Lu, R. & Bol, L. (2007). A comparison of anonymous versus identifiable e-peer review on college student writing performance and the extent of critical feedback. Journal of Interactive Online Learning. 6(2), 100-115.
Polio, C. (2012). The acquisition of second language writing. In S.M. Gass and A. Mackey (Eds.). The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 319-334). New York: Routledge.
Polio, C., Fleck, C., & Leder, N. (1998). If only I had more time: ESL learners’ changes in linguistic accuracy on easy revisions. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7, 43,68
Radecki, P., & Swales, J. (1988). ESL student reaction to written comments on their written work. System, 16(3), 355-365.
Raimes, A. (1983). Techniques of teaching writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Richards, J. & Rodgers, J. (1999). Approaches and Methods of language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sato, M. (2013). Beliefs about peer interaction and peer corrective feedback: Efficacy of classroom intervention. Modern Language Journal, 97(3), 611-633. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2013.12035
Schimdt, R. (1995). Consciousness and foreign language teaching. A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In R.W. Schmidt (Ed.). Attention and awareness in foreign language learning. (pp. 1-63). Honolulu: University of Hawai.
Semke, H. (1984). The effects of the red pen. Foreign Language Annals, 17, 195-202
Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners’ acquisition of articles. TESOL Quarterly, 41, 255–283.
Sheppard, K. (1992). Two feedback types: do they make a difference? RELC Journal 23, 103-110.
Simpson, J.M. (2006). Feedback on writing: Changing EFL students’ attitudes. TESL Canada Journal, 24(1), 96-112. 17
Slavin, R.A. (2011). Cooperative learning. In V.G. Aukrust (Ed.). Learning and cognition in education (pp. 160-166) Oxford: Elsevier Limited
Stanley, J. (1992). Coaching student writers to be effective peer evaluators. Journal of Second Language Learning, 1(3), 217-233
Suri, L.Z. & McCoy, K. F. (2008). Correcting Discourse level errors in a CALL System for Second Language Learning. CALL, 6(3) 215-231.
Terrell, T. (1977). A natural approach to second language acquisition and learning. The Modern Language Journal, 61, 325-337
Tran, T.H. (2013). Approaches to treating student written errors. A paper presented at MIDTESOL Conference, Lawrence, Kansas.
Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes. Language Learning, 46, 327–369.
Truscott, J., & Hsu, A. Y-P. (2008). Error correction, revision, and learning. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 292–305. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2008.05.003
Van Beuningen, C.G., De Jong, N.H., & Kuiken, F. (2008). The effect of direct and indirect corrective feedback on L2 learners’ written accuracy. ITL International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 156, 279–296.
Yu, G.K. (1993). Cooperative learning for heterogeneous EFL classrooms in secondary school in Taiwan. NationalKaohseung Normal University Journal, $, 209-229.
Yu, S., & Lee, I. (2014). An analysis of Chinese EFL students' use of first and second language in peer feedback of L2 writing. System, 47, 28-38. doi:10.1016/j.system.2014.08.007.
Zaman, M., & Azad, A.K. (2012). Feedback in EFL Writing at Tertiary Level: Teachers' and Learners' Perceptions. ASA University Review, 6(1), 139-156.
Zamel, V. (1985). Responding to student writing. TESOL Quarterly,19, 79-101.
Zhao, H. (2014). Investigating teacher-supported peer assessment for EFL writing. ELT Journal, 68(2), 155-168. doi:10.1093/elt/cct068.
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2018-10-31
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