An investigation of cognitive and metacognitive strategy use: Changes and differences
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v5i2.1555Keywords:
stratgey use, cognitive, metacognitive, change, gender, contextAbstract
This paper reports on the results of a study of the use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in English learning in terms of changes and differences during a term at the tertiary level in Chinese EFL contexts. A 35-item survey involving 934 undergraduate non-English majors revealed that: (1) the whole participant sample, as well as males and females, reported a low use of the cognitive strategies of practicing and creating structure for input and output but generally a medium use of the other cognitive and metacognitive strategies both at the beginning and toward the end of the term; (2) towards the end of the term, the whole sample, as well as males and females and the three university samples, tended to utilize significantly more frequently
most of the cognitive and mecognitive strategies but less frequently the strategies of centering one’s learning; (3) significant
differences occurred in the strategies of creating structure for input and output, centering one’s learning, and evaluating one’s learning
between male and female students at the beginning and/or toward the end of the term, and in almost all the categories of cognitive and metacognitive strategies among the three university samples both at the beginning and toward the end of term; (4) the three university samples demonstrated differing patterns in using the cognitive and metacognitive strategies both at the beginning and toward the end of term. Based on the results, some implications and suggestions for future research are discussed
References
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Ehrman, M.E., & Oxford, R.L. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 67-89.
Gao, X. (2006). Understanding changes in Chinese students’ uses of learning strategies in China and Britain: A socio-cultural re-interpretation. System, 34, 55-67.
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Gu, Y., & Johnson, R.K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning, 46, 643-679.
Hong-Nam, K., & Leavell, A.G. (2006). Language learning strategy use of ESL students in an intensive English learning context. System, 34, 399-415.
Lan, R., & Oxford, R.L. (2003). Language learning strategy profiles of elementary school students in Taiwan. IRAL, 41, 339-379.
Li, L. (2005). An investigation of the learning strategy use of college English learners. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Tsinghua University. Beijing.
Liu, M., & Zhang, W. (2009). Affective and cognitive factors and foreign language achievement. Trafford, Upcoming.
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Scarcella, R., & Zimmerman, C. (1998). Academic words and gender: ESL student performance on a test of academic lexicon. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 27-49.
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Vandergrift, L. (1996). Listening strategies of core French high school students. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 52, 200-223.
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Wang, D. (2007). How ESL learners with different proficiency levels handle unfamiliar vocabulary in reading. Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 3, 72-98.
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Wen, Q. (1995). Differences in strategy use between successful and unsuccessful learners. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 3, 61-66.
Wen, Q. (1996). Structure, characteristics and monitor of the English learning strategy use system. Foreign Language Research, 1, 56-60.
Wen, Q., & Johnson, R. K. (1997). L2 learner variables and English achievements: a study of tertiary-level English majors in China. Applied Linguistics, 18, 27-48.
Wong-Fillmore, L. (1979). Individual differences in second language acquisition. In C. J. Fillmore, W-S. Y. Wang & D. Kempler (Eds.), Individual differences in language ability and language behavior. New York: Academic Press.
Yang, N. (1996). Effective awareness-raising in language learning strategy instruction. In R.L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 205-210). Manoa: University of Hawaii Press.
Young, D.J., & Oxford, R. (1997). A gender-related analysis of strategies used to process written input in the native language and a foreign language. Applied Language Learning, 8, 43-73.
Zhang, W., & Liu, M. (2008). Investigating cognitive and metacognitive strategy use during an English proficiency test. Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 2, 122-139.
Boyle, J.P. (1987). Sex differences in listening vocabulary. Language Learning, 37, 273-284.
Bremner, S. (1999). Language learning strategies and language proficiency: Investigating the relationship in Hong Kong. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 55, 496-514.
Chamot, A.U., & El-Dinary, P. B. (1999). Children’s learning strategies in language immersion classrooms. The Modern Language Journal, 83, 319-338.
Chamot, A.U., & Küpper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 22, 13-24.
Chavez, M. (2001). Gender in the language classroom. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Cohen, A.D. (1998). Strategies and processes in test taking and SLA. In L. F. Bachman & A.D. Cohen (Eds.), Interfaces between second language acquisition and language testing research (pp. 90-111). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ehrman, M.E., & Oxford, R.L. (1995). Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 67-89.
Gao, X. (2006). Understanding changes in Chinese students’ uses of learning strategies in China and Britain: A socio-cultural re-interpretation. System, 34, 55-67.
Grainger, P.R. (1997). Language-learning strategies for learners of Japanese: Investigating ethnicity. Foreign Language Annals, 30, 378-385.
Grainger, P. (2005). Second language learning strategies and Japanese: Does orthography make a difference? System, 33, 327-339.
Green, J.M., & Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29, 261-297.
Gu, Y., & Johnson, R.K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning, 46, 643-679.
Hong-Nam, K., & Leavell, A.G. (2006). Language learning strategy use of ESL students in an intensive English learning context. System, 34, 399-415.
Lan, R., & Oxford, R.L. (2003). Language learning strategy profiles of elementary school students in Taiwan. IRAL, 41, 339-379.
Li, L. (2005). An investigation of the learning strategy use of college English learners. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Tsinghua University. Beijing.
Liu, M., & Zhang, W. (2009). Affective and cognitive factors and foreign language achievement. Trafford, Upcoming.
Magogwe, J.M., & Oliver, R. (2007). The relationship between language learning strategies, proficiency, age and self-efficacy beliefs: A study of language learners in Botswana. System, 35, 338-352.
Naiman, N., Frühlich, M., Stern, H.H., & Todesco, A. (1978). The good language learner. Research in Education Series, 7. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
O’Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Malley, J.M., Chamot, A.U., Stewner-Manzanares, G., Kupper, L., & Russo, R. P. (1985). Learning strategies used by beginning and intermediate ESL students. Language Learning, 35, 21-46.
Oxford, R.L. (1989). Use of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy training. System, 17, 235-247.
Oxford, R.L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House/Harper & Row.
Oxford, R.L., & Nyikos, M. (1989). Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students. Modern Language Journal, 73, 291-300.
Peters, M. (1999). The listening comprehension strategies of students in an intensive French as a second language program. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Ottawa, Canada.
Purpura, J.E. (1997). An analysis of the relationships between test takers’ cognitive and metacognitive strategy use and second language test performance. Language Learning, 47, 289-325.
Scarcella, R., & Zimmerman, C. (1998). Academic words and gender: ESL student performance on a test of academic lexicon. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 27-49.
Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London: Edward Arnold.
Vandergrift, L. (1996). Listening strategies of core French high school students. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 52, 200-223.
Vandergrift, L. (1997). The comprehension strategies of second language (French) listeners. Foreign Language Annals, 30, 387-409.
Wang, D. (2007). How ESL learners with different proficiency levels handle unfamiliar vocabulary in reading. Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 3, 72-98.
Wen, Q. (1993). Advanced level English learning in China: the relationship of modifiable learner variables to learning outcomes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Hong Kong University.
Wen, Q. (1995). Differences in strategy use between successful and unsuccessful learners. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 3, 61-66.
Wen, Q. (1996). Structure, characteristics and monitor of the English learning strategy use system. Foreign Language Research, 1, 56-60.
Wen, Q., & Johnson, R. K. (1997). L2 learner variables and English achievements: a study of tertiary-level English majors in China. Applied Linguistics, 18, 27-48.
Wong-Fillmore, L. (1979). Individual differences in second language acquisition. In C. J. Fillmore, W-S. Y. Wang & D. Kempler (Eds.), Individual differences in language ability and language behavior. New York: Academic Press.
Yang, N. (1996). Effective awareness-raising in language learning strategy instruction. In R.L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 205-210). Manoa: University of Hawaii Press.
Young, D.J., & Oxford, R. (1997). A gender-related analysis of strategies used to process written input in the native language and a foreign language. Applied Language Learning, 8, 43-73.
Zhang, W., & Liu, M. (2008). Investigating cognitive and metacognitive strategy use during an English proficiency test. Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 2, 122-139.
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2009-10-31
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