How ESL learners with different proficiency levels handle unfamiliar vocabulary in reading
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v3i1.1590Keywords:
vocabulary handling strategies, think-aloud protocols interviewsAbstract
This article presents findings from research into spontaneous vocabulary handling strategies employed by a sample of 20 Singapore secondary students from a typical neighborhood school. Following the definition of the term ‘strategy’ referring to a specific action or step, I identified 21 types of strategies used by the participants, and compared the way the high and low proficiency students employed them by comparatively examining the majority usage strategies of the two groups. To find the evidence of their strategy use, think-aloud protocols paired with immediate retrospective interviews and general interviews when necessary were analyzed. The study showed that the students mobilized multiple strategies on individual words and that the high proficiency students used strategies both more flexibly and effectively than their low proficiency counterparts. The differences in the use of strategies between the groups suggest a need for learner strategy training and awareness raising, an issue which is also discussed in this article.
References
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Cohen, A.D., & Aphek, E. 1980. Retention of second-language vocabulary over time: Investigating the role of mnemonic associations. System, 8, 221-235.
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Ely, C. M. 1995. Tolerance of ambiguity and the teaching of ESL. In J.M. Reid (Ed.), Learning styles in the ESL/EFL classroom (pp.87-95). Newbury House, Teacher Department.
Fox, J. W. 1983. Vocabulary building. TESL Talk, 14/1, 112-117.
Garner, R. 1981. Monitoring of passage inconsistency among poor comprehenders: A preliminary test of the piecemeal processing explanation. Journal of Education Research, 74, 159-162.
Goh, C.M. 1998. How ESL learners with different listening abilities use comprehension strategies and tactics. Language Teaching Research, 2/2, 124-147.
Goodman, Y. M. 1996. Revaluing readers while readers revalue themselves: Retrospective miscue analysis. The Reading Teacher. 49/8, 600-609.
Grabe, W. 1988. Reassessing the term ‘interactive’. In P. Carrell, J. Devine & D. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive approach to second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Gu, Y. & Johnson, R.K. 1996. Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning, 46, 643-679.
Harmon, J.M. 1999. Initial encounters with unfamiliar words in independent reading. Research in the Teaching of English, 33/3, 304-338.
Hindmarsh, R. 1980. Cambridge English lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Honeyfield, J. 1977. Word frequency and the importance of context in vocabulary learning. RELC Journal, 8/2, 35-42.
Huckin, T., & Bloch, J. 1993. Strategies for inferring word-meanings in context: A cognitive model. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.) Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp.153-180). Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Hulstijn, J.H. 1993. When do foreign-language readers look up the meaning of unfamiliar words? The influence of task and learner variables. The Modern Language Journal, 77, 139-147.
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Kletzien, S.B. 1991. Strategy use by good and poor comprehenders reading expository text of different levels. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 67-86.
Krashen, S. 1989. We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 24, 237-270.
Laufer, B. 1997. The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don’t know, words you think you know, and words you can’t guess. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 20-34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lawson, M.J. & Hogben, D. 1996. The vocabulary-learning strategies of foreign-language students. Language Learning, 46, 101-135.
McDonough, S.H. 1999. Learner strategies, Language Learning, 32, 1-18.
Menon, U. 1998. GCE O-Level system examination series: English language, System Publishing House Pte. Ltd., Singapore.
Nunan, D. 1992. Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. 1990. Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R.L. 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.
Parry, K. 1997. Vocabulary and comprehension: Two portraits. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 55-68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pressley, M. & Afflerbach, P. 1995. Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Roskams, T. 1998. What’s a guess worth? Chinese students’ inferencing strategies for unknown words while reading. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 3/2, 65-102.
Ruddell, M. R. 1994. Vocabulary knowledge and comprehension: A comprehension-process view of complex literacy relationships. In R.B. Ruddell, M. R. Ruddell & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th Edition), (pp. 414-447). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Schmidt, R. 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 2, 129-158.
Schmitt, N. 1997. Vocabulary learning strategies. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition, and pedagogy (pp.199-227). Cambridge University Press.
Schmitt, N.& McCarthy, M. 1997. Vocabulary: description, acquisition, and pedagogy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Scholfield, P. 1997. Vocabulary reference works in foreign language learning. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition, and pedagogy (pp. 279-302). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schunk, D.H. 1996. Learning Theories (2nd Ed.). Prentice Hall. Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Vanniarajan, S. 1997. An interactive model of vocabulary acquisition. Applied language learning, 8/2, 183-216.
Wang, D.K. 2000. Vocabulary handling strategies in ESL reading: A study of Singapore secondary three students. Unpublished MA dissertation, Nanyang Technological University.
Williams, M. & Burden, R. L. 1997. Psychology for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wiltshire, M. June 20 1999. Make friends with your dictionary. Guardian Weekly/BBC World Service, Learning English, 7.
Bensoussan, M., Sim, D., & Weiss, R. 1984. The effect of dictionary usage on EFL test performance compared with student and teacher attitudes and expectations. Reading in a Foreign Language, 2, 262-276.
Carrell, P., Devine, J. & Eskey, D. 1988. Interactive approach to second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Coady, J. 1993. Research on ESL/EFL vocabulary acquisition: Putting it in context. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes, & J. Coady (Eds.), Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp. 3-23). Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Cohen, D. A. 1998. Strategies in learning and using language. Longman
Cohen, A.D., & Aphek, E. 1980. Retention of second-language vocabulary over time: Investigating the role of mnemonic associations. System, 8, 221-235.
Elshout-Mohr, M. & van Daalen-Kapteijn, M. M. 1987. Cognitive processes in learning word meanings. In M. G. McKeown & M. E. Curtis (Eds.) The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp.53-71). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ely, C. M. 1995. Tolerance of ambiguity and the teaching of ESL. In J.M. Reid (Ed.), Learning styles in the ESL/EFL classroom (pp.87-95). Newbury House, Teacher Department.
Fox, J. W. 1983. Vocabulary building. TESL Talk, 14/1, 112-117.
Garner, R. 1981. Monitoring of passage inconsistency among poor comprehenders: A preliminary test of the piecemeal processing explanation. Journal of Education Research, 74, 159-162.
Goh, C.M. 1998. How ESL learners with different listening abilities use comprehension strategies and tactics. Language Teaching Research, 2/2, 124-147.
Goodman, Y. M. 1996. Revaluing readers while readers revalue themselves: Retrospective miscue analysis. The Reading Teacher. 49/8, 600-609.
Grabe, W. 1988. Reassessing the term ‘interactive’. In P. Carrell, J. Devine & D. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive approach to second language reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gu, Y. 1994. Vocabulary learning strategies of good and poor Chinese EFL learners. Paper presented at TESOL 94, Baltimore, MD. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 370 411).
Gu, Y. & Johnson, R.K. 1996. Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning, 46, 643-679.
Harmon, J.M. 1999. Initial encounters with unfamiliar words in independent reading. Research in the Teaching of English, 33/3, 304-338.
Hindmarsh, R. 1980. Cambridge English lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Honeyfield, J. 1977. Word frequency and the importance of context in vocabulary learning. RELC Journal, 8/2, 35-42.
Huckin, T., & Bloch, J. 1993. Strategies for inferring word-meanings in context: A cognitive model. In T. Huckin, M. Haynes & J. Coady (Eds.) Second language reading and vocabulary learning (pp.153-180). Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corporation.
Hulstijn, J.H. 1993. When do foreign-language readers look up the meaning of unfamiliar words? The influence of task and learner variables. The Modern Language Journal, 77, 139-147.
Johnson, R. K. & Yau,. 1996. Coping with second language texts: The development of lexically-based reading strategies. In D. Watkins & J. Biggs (Eds.) The Chinese Learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences (pp.123-140). Comparative Education Research Centre, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong and Australian Council of Educational Research Ltd., Camberwell.
Kletzien, S.B. 1991. Strategy use by good and poor comprehenders reading expository text of different levels. Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 67-86.
Krashen, S. 1989. We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 24, 237-270.
Laufer, B. 1997. The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don’t know, words you think you know, and words you can’t guess. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 20-34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lawson, M.J. & Hogben, D. 1996. The vocabulary-learning strategies of foreign-language students. Language Learning, 46, 101-135.
McDonough, S.H. 1999. Learner strategies, Language Learning, 32, 1-18.
Menon, U. 1998. GCE O-Level system examination series: English language, System Publishing House Pte. Ltd., Singapore.
Nunan, D. 1992. Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. 1990. Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R.L. 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.
Parry, K. 1997. Vocabulary and comprehension: Two portraits. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 55-68). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pressley, M. & Afflerbach, P. 1995. Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Roskams, T. 1998. What’s a guess worth? Chinese students’ inferencing strategies for unknown words while reading. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 3/2, 65-102.
Ruddell, M. R. 1994. Vocabulary knowledge and comprehension: A comprehension-process view of complex literacy relationships. In R.B. Ruddell, M. R. Ruddell & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th Edition), (pp. 414-447). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Schmidt, R. 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 2, 129-158.
Schmitt, N. 1997. Vocabulary learning strategies. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition, and pedagogy (pp.199-227). Cambridge University Press.
Schmitt, N.& McCarthy, M. 1997. Vocabulary: description, acquisition, and pedagogy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Scholfield, P. 1997. Vocabulary reference works in foreign language learning. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition, and pedagogy (pp. 279-302). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schunk, D.H. 1996. Learning Theories (2nd Ed.). Prentice Hall. Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Vanniarajan, S. 1997. An interactive model of vocabulary acquisition. Applied language learning, 8/2, 183-216.
Wang, D.K. 2000. Vocabulary handling strategies in ESL reading: A study of Singapore secondary three students. Unpublished MA dissertation, Nanyang Technological University.
Williams, M. & Burden, R. L. 1997. Psychology for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wiltshire, M. June 20 1999. Make friends with your dictionary. Guardian Weekly/BBC World Service, Learning English, 7.
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2007-05-31
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