The role of awareness in L2 development: Theory, research, and pedagogy
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v2i2.1605Keywords:
attention, awareness, detection, feedback, L2 development, noticisng, task-essentialnessAbstract
Cognitive psychology and cognitive science appear to agree that attention to stimuli is needed for long-term memory storage and that little, if any, learning can take place without attention. One strand of psycholinguistic research that has drawn quite a lot of interest, both from a theoretical and empirical perspective, is the role awareness plays in second language acquisition (SLA). To promote a further understanding of the role of awareness may potentially contribute to L2 development. This article will (1) briefly describe current theoretical approaches to the role of awareness in language learning, (2) review recent studies that have employed verbal reports to investigate the effects of awareness on L2 development, and (3) provide, based on the review, some awareness-raising pedagogical tasks for the L2 classroom setting.
References
llport, A. 1988. What concept of consciousness? In A. J. Marcel & E. Bisiach (Eds.), Consciousness in contemporary science (pp. 159-182). London: Clarendon Press.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Hartford, B. 1997. Beyond methods: Components of second language teacher education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Carr, T. H., & Curran, T. 1994. Cognitive factors in learning about structured sequences: Applications to syntax. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16/2, 205-230.
Carlson, R. & Dulany, D. 1985. Conscious attention and abstraction in concept learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11 45-58
Curran, T., & Keele, S. 1994. Attentional and nonattentional forms of sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 189-202.
Estes, W. 1989. Learning theory. In A. Lesgold & R. Glaser (Eds.), Foundations for a psychology of education (pp. 1-49). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Hardcastle, V. G. 1993. The naturalists versus the skeptics: The debate over a scientific understanding of consciousness. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 14, 27-50.
Hartman, M., Knopman, D. S., & Nissen, M. J. 1989. Implicit learning of new verbal associations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 1070-1082.
Leow, R. P. 1993. To simplify or not to simplify: A look at intake. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 333-355.
Leow, R. P. 1994a. Teacher education and coherent curriculum development: The crucial link. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Educational linguistics, crosscultural communication, and global interdependence (pp. 337-346). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
Leow, R. P. 1994b. The role of TAs in coherent language curriculum development. The Journal of Graduate Teaching Assistant Development, 2 , 63-70.
Leow, R. P. 1995a. Professional TA development and coherent curriculum development: Preparing TAs for the future professoriate. In T. Keenan & K. F. Jerich (Eds.), Teaching graduate students to teach: Engaging the disciplines (pp. 41¬-44). Urbana-Champaign, IL: Office of Conferences and Institutes Press.
Leow, R. P. 1995b. Teacher education and psycholinguistics: Making teachers psycholinguists. In J. E. Alatis, C. A. Straehle, B. Gallenberger, & M. Ronkin (Eds.), Linguistics and the education of second language teachers: Ethnolinguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic aspects ( pp. 361 ¬– 377 ). Washington, D. C. : Georgetown University Press.
Leow, R. P. 1997. Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning, 47/3, 467-505.
Leow, R. P. 1998. The effects of amount and type of exposure on adult learners' L2 development in SLA. Modern Language Journal, 82/1, 49-68.
Leow, R. P. 2000. A study of the role of awareness in foreign language behavior: Aware versus unaware learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22/4, 557-584.
Leow, R. P. 2001. Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning, 51 (supplement 1), 113-155.
Loschky, L., & Bley-Vroman, R. 1993. Grammar and task-based methodology. In G. Crookes & S. Gass (Eds.), Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and practice (123-167). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Nagata, N. 1993. Intelligent computer feedback for second language instruction. Modern Language Journal, 77, 330-339.
Nagata, N., & Swisher, M. V. 1995. A study of consciousness-raising by computer: The effect of metalinguistic feedback on SLA. Foreign Language Annals, 28, 336-347.
Nissen, M., & Bullemer, P. 1987. Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 1-32.
Posner, M. I. 1992. Attention as a cognitive and neural system. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 11-14.
Reber, A. 1967. Implicit learning of artificial grammars. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 77, 317-327.
Reber, A. 1976. Implicit learning of synthetic languages: The role of instructional sets. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2, 88-94.
Reber, A. 1989. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 118, 219-235.
Reber, A. 1993. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious. In Oxford psychology series, no. 19. London: Oxford University Press.
Robinson, P. 1995a. Attention, memory, and the "noticing" hypothesis. Language Learning, 45/2, 283-331.
Robinson, P. 1995b. Aptitude, awareness, and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit second language learning. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 303-357). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press.
Robinson, P. 1996. Learning simple and complex second language rules under implicit, incidental, rule-search, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18/1, 27-67.
Robinson, P. 1997a. Generalizability and automaticity of second language learning under implicit, incidental, enhanced, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19/2, 223-247.
Robinson, P. 1997b. Individual differences and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit adult second language learning. Language Learning, 47/1, 45-99.
Rosa, E., & Leow, R. P. 2004a. Awareness, different learning conditions, and L2 development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25/2, 269-292.
Rosa, E., & Leow, R. P. 2004b. Computerized task-based exposure, explicitness, type of feedback, and Spanish L2 development. Modern Language Journal, 88/2, 192-216.
Rosa, E., & O'Neill, M. D. 1999. Explicitness, intake, and the issue of awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21/4, 511-556.
Schmidt, R. 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11/2, 129-158.
Schmidt, R. 1993. Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 206-226.
Schmidt, R. 1994. Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. AILA Review, 11, 11-26.
Schmidt, R. 1995. Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In R. W. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i.
Schmidt, R. 2001. Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R., & Frota, S. 1986. Developing basic conversational ability in a second language. In R. Day (Ed.), Talking to learn (pp. 237-326). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M.F. 1994. Characteristics of dissociable human learning syetems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 367-447.
Tomlin, R. S., & Villa, V. 1994. Attention in cognitive science and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16/2, 183-203.
Velmans, M. 1991. Is human information processing conscious? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 651-669.
Williams, J. N. 2004. Implicit learning of form-meaning connections. In J. Williams, B. VanPatten, S. Rott & M. Overstreet (Eds.), Form-meaning connections in second language acquisition (pp. 203-218). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Hartford, B. 1997. Beyond methods: Components of second language teacher education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Carr, T. H., & Curran, T. 1994. Cognitive factors in learning about structured sequences: Applications to syntax. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16/2, 205-230.
Carlson, R. & Dulany, D. 1985. Conscious attention and abstraction in concept learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11 45-58
Curran, T., & Keele, S. 1994. Attentional and nonattentional forms of sequence learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 189-202.
Estes, W. 1989. Learning theory. In A. Lesgold & R. Glaser (Eds.), Foundations for a psychology of education (pp. 1-49). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Hardcastle, V. G. 1993. The naturalists versus the skeptics: The debate over a scientific understanding of consciousness. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 14, 27-50.
Hartman, M., Knopman, D. S., & Nissen, M. J. 1989. Implicit learning of new verbal associations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 1070-1082.
Leow, R. P. 1993. To simplify or not to simplify: A look at intake. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 333-355.
Leow, R. P. 1994a. Teacher education and coherent curriculum development: The crucial link. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Educational linguistics, crosscultural communication, and global interdependence (pp. 337-346). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.
Leow, R. P. 1994b. The role of TAs in coherent language curriculum development. The Journal of Graduate Teaching Assistant Development, 2 , 63-70.
Leow, R. P. 1995a. Professional TA development and coherent curriculum development: Preparing TAs for the future professoriate. In T. Keenan & K. F. Jerich (Eds.), Teaching graduate students to teach: Engaging the disciplines (pp. 41¬-44). Urbana-Champaign, IL: Office of Conferences and Institutes Press.
Leow, R. P. 1995b. Teacher education and psycholinguistics: Making teachers psycholinguists. In J. E. Alatis, C. A. Straehle, B. Gallenberger, & M. Ronkin (Eds.), Linguistics and the education of second language teachers: Ethnolinguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic aspects ( pp. 361 ¬– 377 ). Washington, D. C. : Georgetown University Press.
Leow, R. P. 1997. Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning, 47/3, 467-505.
Leow, R. P. 1998. The effects of amount and type of exposure on adult learners' L2 development in SLA. Modern Language Journal, 82/1, 49-68.
Leow, R. P. 2000. A study of the role of awareness in foreign language behavior: Aware versus unaware learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22/4, 557-584.
Leow, R. P. 2001. Attention, awareness, and foreign language behavior. Language Learning, 51 (supplement 1), 113-155.
Loschky, L., & Bley-Vroman, R. 1993. Grammar and task-based methodology. In G. Crookes & S. Gass (Eds.), Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and practice (123-167). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
Nagata, N. 1993. Intelligent computer feedback for second language instruction. Modern Language Journal, 77, 330-339.
Nagata, N., & Swisher, M. V. 1995. A study of consciousness-raising by computer: The effect of metalinguistic feedback on SLA. Foreign Language Annals, 28, 336-347.
Nissen, M., & Bullemer, P. 1987. Attentional requirements of learning: Evidence from performance measures. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 1-32.
Posner, M. I. 1992. Attention as a cognitive and neural system. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 11-14.
Reber, A. 1967. Implicit learning of artificial grammars. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 77, 317-327.
Reber, A. 1976. Implicit learning of synthetic languages: The role of instructional sets. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2, 88-94.
Reber, A. 1989. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 118, 219-235.
Reber, A. 1993. Implicit learning and tacit knowledge: An essay on the cognitive unconscious. In Oxford psychology series, no. 19. London: Oxford University Press.
Robinson, P. 1995a. Attention, memory, and the "noticing" hypothesis. Language Learning, 45/2, 283-331.
Robinson, P. 1995b. Aptitude, awareness, and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit second language learning. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 303-357). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press.
Robinson, P. 1996. Learning simple and complex second language rules under implicit, incidental, rule-search, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18/1, 27-67.
Robinson, P. 1997a. Generalizability and automaticity of second language learning under implicit, incidental, enhanced, and instructed conditions. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19/2, 223-247.
Robinson, P. 1997b. Individual differences and the fundamental similarity of implicit and explicit adult second language learning. Language Learning, 47/1, 45-99.
Rosa, E., & Leow, R. P. 2004a. Awareness, different learning conditions, and L2 development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25/2, 269-292.
Rosa, E., & Leow, R. P. 2004b. Computerized task-based exposure, explicitness, type of feedback, and Spanish L2 development. Modern Language Journal, 88/2, 192-216.
Rosa, E., & O'Neill, M. D. 1999. Explicitness, intake, and the issue of awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21/4, 511-556.
Schmidt, R. 1990. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11/2, 129-158.
Schmidt, R. 1993. Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 206-226.
Schmidt, R. 1994. Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. AILA Review, 11, 11-26.
Schmidt, R. 1995. Consciousness and foreign language learning: A tutorial on the role of attention and awareness in learning. In R. W. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i.
Schmidt, R. 2001. Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R., & Frota, S. 1986. Developing basic conversational ability in a second language. In R. Day (Ed.), Talking to learn (pp. 237-326). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Shanks, D. R., & St. John, M.F. 1994. Characteristics of dissociable human learning syetems. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 17, 367-447.
Tomlin, R. S., & Villa, V. 1994. Attention in cognitive science and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16/2, 183-203.
Velmans, M. 1991. Is human information processing conscious? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 14, 651-669.
Williams, J. N. 2004. Implicit learning of form-meaning connections. In J. Williams, B. VanPatten, S. Rott & M. Overstreet (Eds.), Form-meaning connections in second language acquisition (pp. 203-218). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Downloads
Published
2006-10-31
Issue
Section
Articles
